Systems and methods for opening of a tissue barrier

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods for opening a tissue to a target value using microbubbles are disclosed herein. In an embodiment of a method for opening a tissue to a target value using microbubbles, a region of the tissue is targeted for opening, an acoustic parameter corresponding to the target value is determined, and an ultrasound beam is applied to the target region at the acoustic parameter such that the tissue at the target region is opened to the target value with the microbubbles. The acoustic parameter can be selected to control an acoustic cavitation event and, in some embodiments, controlling an acoustic cavitation event can include controlling a location, number and/or magnitude of acoustic cavitation events.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2010/049681, filed on Sep. 21, 2010, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein and from which priority is claimed. This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 61/244,311 entitled “Improved Opening of Tissue Barrier,” filed on Sep. 21, 2009, 61/353,611 entitled “Systems and Methods for Opening a Tissue Utilizing Certain Sonication Pulse Values,” filed on Jun. 10, 2010, and 61/353,631 entitled “Brain Drug Delivery Using Focused Ultrasound and Microbubbles,” filed Jun. 10, 2010, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein and from which priority is claimed. This application is also related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/077,612, filed Mar. 19, 2008, and International Patent Application No. PCT/US09/056,565, filed Sep. 10, 2009, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY-SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under ROI EB009041 and R21 EY018505 awarded by the National Institutes of Health and CAREER 0644713 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present application relates to systems and methods for opening a tissue utilizing acoustic parameters in conjunction with microbubbles.

BACKGROUND

Recent advances in molecular engineering and neuroscience have led to an increasing number of biomarkers and therapeutic agents for the monitoring and treatment of neurological disorders. Many of these agents have proven in vitro specificity or neurological potency, but their in vivo efficacy remains limited by their inability to reach their target due to the blood-brain barrier. This interface regulates the exchange of molecules across the cerebral capillaries through passive, transport, and metabolic barriers, resulting in the exclusion of nearly all agents larger than 400 Da from the brain's extracellular space. Biomarkers and therapeutic agents, such as inhibitors to enzymes (˜1 kDa) and antibodies (30 to 300 kDa), are thus rendered ineffective because they do not reach their intended targets.

SUMMARY

Systems and methods for opening a tissue to a target value are disclosed herein. Systems and methods for drug delivery across tissues, e.g., across the blood brain barrier (BBB), are also disclosed herein.

In an embodiment of a method for opening a tissue to a target value using microbubbles, a region of the tissue is targeted for opening, an acoustic parameter corresponding to the target value is determined and an ultrasound beam is applied to the target region at the acoustic parameter such that the tissue at the target region is opened to the target value with the microbubbles. The method can further include positioning microbubbles in proximity to the targeted region and, in some embodiments, positioning the microbubbles can include performing an injection of the microbubbles such that the microbubbles are positioned proximate to the targeted region. The method can further include determining a number of injections and/or a duration of an injection corresponding to the target value. In some embodiments, the injection can be a systemic injection, a bolus injection and/or a slow diffusion injection. The acoustic parameter can be selected to control an acoustic cavitation event and, in some embodiments, controlling an acoustic cavitation event can include controlling a location, number and/or magnitude of acoustic cavitation events. The acoustic parameter can be a pulse length, a pulse repetition frequency, a burst length, a burst repetition frequency, an ultrasound frequency, a pressure range, and/or a duration corresponding to the target value. In some embodiments, the pressure range can correspond to the resonance frequency of the microbubbles proximate to the targeted region.

The method can include determining a concentration range of microbubbles corresponding to the target value and applying an ultrasound beam to move the microbubbles into vessels of the tissue. In some embodiments, the microbubbles can have a size range of 1 to 10 microns, and in other embodiments can have a size range of 1 to 2 microns, 4 to 5 microns, or 6 to 8 microns. The microbubbles can be acoustically activated and/or molecule-carrying. The molecule-carrying microbubbles can carry or be coated with medicinal molecules and/or a contrast agent and/or a biomarker and/or a liposome. Medicinal molecules and/or contrast agents can also be separately positioned in proximity to the targeted region.

The method can further include imaging the targeted region, to form an image of the opened tissue. In some embodiments imaging the targeted region includes applying an ultrasound beam to the targeted region, while in other embodiments imaging the targeted region includes utilizing a magnetic resonance imaging device and/or a fluorescence imaging device to image the targeted region.

An embodiment of a system for opening a tissue to a target value using a solution of microbubbles having a size range corresponding to the target value includes a targeting assembly for targeting a region of the tissue, an introducer for delivering the solution to a location proximate to the targeted region and a transducer, coupled to the targeting assembly, for applying an ultrasound beam to the targeted region at an acoustic parameter corresponding to the target value thereby opening the tissue with the microbubbles to the target value. The acoustic parameter can be selected to control an acoustic cavitation event.

The system can further include an imaging device for capturing image data of the opened tissue of the targeted region, and a processor, operatively coupled to the imaging device, for processing the image data to form an image therefrom. In some embodiments the imaging device includes a transducer for applying an ultrasound beam to the targeted region, while in other embodiments the imaging device includes a magnetic resonance imaging device and/or a fluorescence imaging device to image the targeted region.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated and constitute part of this disclosure, illustrate some embodiments of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 1 illustrates a method for opening a blood-brain barrier in a brain of a subject to a target value in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 2 illustrates a method for imaging the opening of a blood-brain barrier in a brain of a subject to a target value in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 3( a) illustrates a system for opening and/or imaging the opening of a blood-brain barrier in a brain of a subject to a target value in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 3( b) illustrates another system for opening and/or imaging the opening of a blood-brain barrier in a brain of a subject to a target value in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 4( a)-(e) illustrate a targeting system for locating a target region of the brain of a subject in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 5 illustrates a system for opening the blood-brain barrier used in connection with an experiment on mice in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 6( a) illustrates a fluorescence image at ten times magnification of a mouse brain after application of tissue opening techniques in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 6( b)-(c) illustrate fluorescence images at four times magnification of a mouse brain after application of tissue opening techniques in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the microbubble concentration in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 8( a) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the pulse repetition frequency in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 8( b) is a graph illustrating the probability of blood-brain barrier opening as a function of varying the pulse repetition frequency in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 9( a) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the pulse length in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 9( b)-(c) are graphs illustrating the probability of blood-brain barrier opening as a function of varying the pulse length in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 10( a)-(h) illustrate histological images of a mouse brain after focused ultrasound sonication with a varying pulse length in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary pulse and burst sequence in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 12( a)-(c) are graphs illustrating the effects of varying the burst repetition frequency for three different pulse repetition frequencies in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 12( d) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the burst length for a certain pulse repetition frequency and burst length in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 13( a)-(i) illustrate images of a mouse brain subjected to sonication in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 14( a)-(e) illustrate images of a mouse brain subjected to sonication in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 15( a)-(d) illustrate images of a mouse brain subjected to sonication in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 16( a)-(e) illustrate images of a mouse brain subjected to sonication in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter. FIG. 16( f) is a diagram showing further details of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 17( i)(a)-(ii)(b) illustrate images of a mouse skull subjected to sonication in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 18 illustrates images of a mouse brain subjected to sonication in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 19 illustrates images of microbubbles in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 20( a)-(c) are diagrams illustrating further features of the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 21 is a diagram illustrating further features of the disclosed subject matter.

FIGS. 22( a)-(d) illustrate images of a mouse brain subjected to sonication in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the disclosed subject matter.

Throughout the figures and specification the same reference numerals are used to indicate similar features and/or structures.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The systems and methods described herein are useful for opening a tissue utilizing microbubbles and focused ultrasound at certain acoustic parameters. Although the description provides as an the example opening the blood-brain barrier, the systems and methods herein are useful for opening other tissues, such as muscular tissue, liver tissue or tumorous tissue, among others.

The subjected matter disclosed herein are methods and systems for determining the acoustic parameters for opening a tissue with the assistance of microbubbles to allow for the passage of certain molecules over selected areas. Accordingly, the techniques described herein make use of selected acoustic parameters chosen to produce a desired opening effect in a tissue when subjected to focus ultrasound utilizing microbubbles of selected sizes and in selected concentrations. The techniques described herein for determining the acoustic parameters for opening a tissue can also be employed in conjunction with other ultrasound techniques, e.g., diagnostic techniques, where opening of a tissue should be avoided. The techniques described herein can be used to determine the acoustic parameters that can be avoided in order to prevent unwanted tissue opening when utilizing such other techniques that, for example, use microbubbles. The techniques described herein provide for reversible opening of a tissue, e.g., the BBB.

In focused ultrasound (FUS), acoustic waves propagate several centimeters through water or tissue and converge onto a focal region while its surroundings remain relatively unaffected. Noninvasive and localized drug delivery systems have emerged from advances in FUS and microbubble technologies. For example, techniques such as blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption for the treatment of neurological diseases, delivery of nanoparticles to tumors, gene therapy for treating heart conditions, and enhancement of renal ultrafiltration have all shown promise due to their ability to increase uptake of luminal molecules into the interstitial space.

The mechanistic event underlying the tissue opening in such examples is the reaction of microbubbles to ultrasonic pulses, which can result in an array of behaviors known as acoustic cavitation. In stable cavitation, the microbubble expands and contracts with the acoustic pressure rarefaction and compression over several cycles, and such action can result in the displacement of the vessel diameter through dilation and contraction. In inertial cavitation, the bubble can expand to several factors greater than its equilibrium radius and subsequently collapse due to the inertia of the surrounding media, thus also inducing an alteration of the vascular physiology. The type and magnitude of each cavitation activity, including reversibility of the opening, can be dictated by, among other things, the microbubble composition and distribution, the ultrasonic pulse shape and sequence, and the in vivo environment in which the bubbles circulate. Control of molecular delivery using FUS can therefore be facilitated by selecting microbubbles and the acoustic environment conditions that they interact with.

Generally, changing ultrasonic parameters has been associated with a tradeoff between efficacy (e.g., high dose, homogeneous distribution, and consistency) and safety (e.g., erythrocyte extravasations and neuronal damage). The acoustic pressure can have a large influence on the type and magnitude of acoustic cavitation activity. Thus, increasing the pressure increases the likelihood and extent of BBB opening, but also is associated with neurovascular and neuronal damage. At acoustic pressures near the threshold of BBB disruption, histological assessments reveal no detectable damage (e.g., erythrocyte extravasations and/or neuronal damage) but at such low pressures there is also a reduction in molecular delivery. Lowering the transmitted center frequency of the ultrasound can result in a decrease of the acoustic pressure threshold.

The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) can affect the ability of microbubbles to reperfuse the vasculature since each pulse can destroy microbubbles. Further, it has been thought that a long pulse length (PL) was a necessary characteristic of an ultrasonic pulse for inducing BBB disruption, for example PLs of 10 or 20 ms (15200 and 30400 cycles at 1.5 MHz) and such long PLs have been associated with inhomogeneity of drug delivery. However, in accordance with an embodiment herein, it is shown that BBB disruption is feasible at a low pressure (less than 1 MPa) using a PL of 33 μs (50 cycles at 1.5 MHz). Utilizing such a low PL and pressure, an improved distribution of the delivered agent was observed, but an associated decrease in concentration of molecules delivered was also observed. As further shown in an embodiment herein, pulse sequences based on the use of a PL of 2.3 μs (3.5 cycles at 1.5 MHz) can enhance the dose and distribution of delivery without compromising safety.

An acoustic parameter design can be formed on the basis that BBB disruption is dependent on the number, magnitude and/or location of cavitation events occurring throughout the cerebral microvasculature. Further, acoustic cavitation activity within the microvasculature can be modified by taking into account concepts of microbubble persistence, fragmentation, and microvascular replenishment. In one embodiment, a series of pulses can be grouped into a burst, with a sufficient duration between bursts to allow for microbubble replenishment in the microvasculature before arrival of the subsequent acoustic pulses. Grouping pluses into bursts can increase the persistence and mobility of the microbubbles, which can result in a single bubble generating cavitation activity at multiple sites along the cerebral microvasculature. Thus, in some embodiments, short PLs used in a burst sequence can enhance the dose and distribution of molecular delivery without attendant damage to the microvasculature. In the same or other embodiments, the number of injections and duration of each injection of bubbles can be altered to enhance the microbubble persistence, for example.

FIG. 1 illustrates a method 100 for opening a tissue to a target value, e.g., a measure of increased ability of the tissue to pass molecules through. The target value can be expressed in terms of an increase in the size of vessels in the tissue, as an area of the tissue that has been opened, or in terms of a rate at which molecules pass through, e.g., a permeability, or as a combination of any of these measures. The method 100 involves targeting 110 a region of the tissue for opening, determining 120 at least one acoustic parameter corresponding to the target value, positioning 140 microbubbles in proximity to the targeted region, and applying 170 an ultrasound beam at the acoustic parameter to the targeted region such that the tissue is opened with the assistance of the microbubbles to the target value. In some embodiments, positioning 140 the microbubbles can include performing an injection of the microbubbles such that the microbubbles are positioned proximate to the targeted region. The method 100 can further include determining a number of injections and/or a duration of an injection corresponding to the target value. In some embodiments, the injection 140 can be a systemic injection, a bolus injection and/or a slow diffusion injection.

As illustrated in FIG. 1, in one exemplary embodiment, the method 100 can further include of determining 130 a concentration range of microbubbles corresponding to the target value and the positioning 140 of the microbubbles can also include positioning the microbubbles of the concentration range that corresponds to the target value. The method 100 can also include positioning 150 a contrast agent and/or medicinal molecule (e.g., a drug) in proximity to the target region.

In one exemplary embodiment, method 100 can include applying 160 an ultrasound beam to move the microbubbles into vessels of the tissue. This application 160 of the ultrasound beam can be the same, or a different, than the application 170 that is used to open the tissue. Further, the application 160 of the ultrasound beam can be at the same, or at a different, acoustic parameter than that determined 120 for the purposes of opening the tissue.

The acoustic parameter to be determined 120 as corresponding to the target value can be selected to control one or more acoustic cavitation events. The acoustic parameter(s) can be selected such that the location, number and/or magnitude of acoustic cavitation events can be controlled in the targeted tissue. In some embodiments, the acoustic parameter can be at least one of the pulse length, the pulse repetition frequency, the burst length, or the burst repetition frequency, or a combination thereof. In other embodiments, the acoustic parameters that are determined 120 can be the pressure range, the frequency, and the duration of the application 170 of ultrasound.

In some embodiments, the target value of the tissue can be selected based on the size of the molecule that is to pass through the tissue, e.g., the BBB, or based on the size, e.g., area, of the region that is to be exposed to the molecule, or a combination of the two. Thus, in some embodiments, the acoustic parameters can be determined 120 such that the tissue is subject to a certain number of acoustic cavitations at selected locations and of selected magnitudes, which can result in a selected number of molecules of a given size passing through the tissue at selected locations. In one exemplary embodiment, the target value can be such that molecules up to the megaDalton size range are able to pass through the BBB, e.g., 2 MDa molecules.

In one embodiment, the target value can be measured in terms of the normalized optical density (NOD) of a contrast agent such as a dextran, e.g., Texas-Red® fluorescent dye and a molecular weight of 3 kiloDaltons (kDa), using the equation NOD=F_(L-ROI)−F_(R-ROI), where F_(L-ROI) is the sum of the pixel values in left region of interest (ROI) of the brain and R_(L-ROI) is the sum of the pixel values in the right ROI of the brain, and where the ultrasound was applied 170 to the left ROI.

In some embodiments, the acoustic parameter can be determined 120 by finding the lowest acoustic parameter value for which the tissue will open to the target value, where the target value is considered to be the minimum amount of opening. In one example involving murine brains, the acoustic parameters to be determined 120 were the PRF and the PL. In accordance with an exemplary experiment detailed below, a PRF value of 1 Hz was experimentally determined 120 to be the lowest PRF for which the BBB of a mouse subject was observed to open based on an observed NOD of approximately 2×10⁷. A PL value of 0.033 ms was experimentally determined 120 to be the lowest PL for which the BBB was observed to open based on an observed NOD of approximately 0.5×10⁷. In other embodiments, a PL of 3 cycles (less than 2.5 μs) was experimentally determined 120 to open the BBB in mice, in an experiment conducted in accordance with an exemplary embodiment described below.

In some embodiments, the acoustic parameter can be determined 120 by finding the lowest reliable acoustic parameter value which will reliably open the tissue to the target value. In an example involving murine brains where the target value was considered the minimum NOD for which BBB opening was observed, the acoustic parameters to be determined 120 were the PRF and the PL. In accordance with an exemplary experiment detailed below, a PRF value of 5 Hz was experimentally determined 120 to be the lowest PRF for which the BBB of a mouse subject was observed to reliably open based on an observed NOD of approximately 2×10⁷. A PL value of 0.2 ms was experimentally determined 120 to be the lowest PL for which the BBB was observed to reliably open based on an observed NOD of approximately 0.5×10⁷.

In yet other embodiments, the acoustic parameter can be determined 120 by finding the acoustic parameter value above which no further significant increase in opening of the tissue is achieved. In an example involving murine brains where the target value was considered to be the NOD above which no further increase in BBB opening was observed, the acoustic parameters to be determined 120 were the PRF and the PL. In accordance with an exemplary experiment detailed below, a PRF value of 5 Hz was experimentally determined 120 to be the PRF for which no further significant increase in the opening of the BBB of a mouse subject was observed and such opening corresponded to an NOD of approximately 2.5×10⁷. A PL value of 10 ms was experimentally determined 120 to be the lowest PL for which no further significant increase in the opening of the BBB of a mouse subject was observed and such opening corresponded to an observed NOD of approximately 3×10⁷.

In the same or other embodiment involving murine brains, the acoustic parameters to be determined 120 can be the burst repetition frequency (BRF) and burst length (BL), where each burst can represent a cluster of pulses. A BRF of 10 Hz was experimentally determined 120 to open the BBB of a mouse subject, where the PRF was set at 100 kHz, and a BRF of 5 Hz was experimentally determined 120 to produce the maximal BBB opening at the same frequency. A BL of 100 pulses was experimentally determined 120 to open the BBB where the PRF was set at 100 kHz and the BRF was set at 5 Hz.

In some embodiments determining 130 a concentration range of microbubbles corresponding to the target value can include determining the minimum microbubble concentration range that will open the tissue to the target value. In an example involving murine brains, a microbubble concentration of 0.01 μl/g was experimentally determined 130 to be the minimum concentration needed to open the BBB. In same or another embodiment, the appropriate concentration of microbubbles can be determined 130 based on the nature of the subject, e.g., a human or a mouse, based on the size of the target region, e.g., the surface area of the BBB that one wishes to open, and based on the vessel size in the target region, e.g., 4-8 μm, or a combination of these factors. In the example of opening a BBB area on the order of millimeters, a concentration range of 10⁷ to 10⁹ bubbles/mL can be appropriate. In one exemplary embodiment, the total concentration for both size ranges of bubbles, e.g., 1-2 and 4-5 μm, was kept constant at approximately 8.5×10⁸ number of bubbles per mL. In order to ensure accuracy of concentration, the bubbles were generated at an initial yield larger than the desired concentration and then diluted in PBS one minute before intravenous injection into the mouse.

In one exemplary embodiment, the bubble concentration can be chosen to be the same across different size distributions as opposed to the volume fraction, because it can be assumed that BBB opening occurs discretely, e.g., the sites of molecular leakage highly correlated with the instantaneous locations of the bubbles at the time of sonication. This implies that BBB opening sites are punctuated along the length of the capillaries. In the case where the volume fraction was kept the same for both sets of bubbles, it is deemed that the imaging protocol used would have the required sensitivity to detect minute increases in fluorescence.

As detailed in commonly assigned International Patent Pub. WO 2010/030819, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein, in some embodiments the appropriate size range of microbubbles can be determined by comparing the bubble size to the cerebral vasculature size and selecting a bubble size that is small enough to perfuse the vessels while at the same time large enough to induce sufficient mechanical stress on the vessel walls, such that the vessels are opened to the target value.

FIG. 2 illustrates a method 200 in accordance with the disclosed subject matter for imaging the opening of a tissue. The method 200 includes the same basic techniques for opening the tissue to a target value: targeting 110 a region of the tissue for opening, determining 120 at least one acoustic parameter corresponding to the target value, positioning 140 microbubbles of a known size range in proximity to the targeted region, and applying 170 an ultrasound beam at the acoustic parameter to the targeted region such that the tissue is opened with the assistance of the microbubbles to the target value. The method 200 further includes imaging 210 the opened tissue. In some embodiments, imaging 210 the opened tissue can be the same as the application 170 of an ultrasound beam to open the tissue. In another embodiment, imaging 210 can include utilizing an MRI device to image the opening of the tissue.

FIG. 3( a) illustrates a system 300 for opening a tissue to a target value. System 300 has many of the same features as the system described in U.S. Patent Pub. No. 2009/0005711 and International Patent Pub. No. WO 2010/030819, commonly assigned patent applications, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein. Ultrasound waves are generated by a focused ultrasound transducer (FUS) 302, which can be a single-element circular-aperture FUS transducer. In one exemplary embodiment the FUS transducer 302 can be a single-element, spherical segment FUS transducer with center frequency of 1.525 MHz, a focal depth of 90 mm, an outer radius of 30 mm, and an inner radius of 11.2 mm (Riverside Research Institute, New York, N.Y., USA). The FUS transducer can be provided with hole in its center for receipt of an imaging transducer 304, which can be a single-element diagnostic transducer having a center frequency of 7.5 MHz with a focal length of 60 mm (Riverside Research Institute, New York, N.Y., USA). The FUS transducer 302 and the diagnostic transducer 304 can be positioned so that the foci of the two transducers are properly aligned, e.g., overlap.

Further illustrated in FIG. 3( a), an exemplary system 300 can include a cone 306 filled with degassed and distilled water and mounted on system 300. The cone 306 can, for example, be manufactured from a clear plastic, such as polyurethane. The water is contained in the cone 306 by capping it with a material considered substantially “transparent” to the ultrasound beam, such as an ultrathin polyurethane membrane 308 (Trojan; Church & Dwight Co., Princeton, N.J., USA).

The transducer assembly, which can include the FUS transducer 302 and the diagnostic transducer 304, can be mounted to a computer-controlled 3-D positioning system 310 (Velmex Inc., Lachine, QC, Canada), including motors VXM-1 and VXM-2 used in the exemplary embodiment. It is understood that other positioning systems can be incorporated for positioning the transducer assembly with respect to the targeted tissue.

In the same or another exemplary embodiment, the FUS transducer 302 can be driven by a function generator 320, e.g., function generator HP33150A, manufactured by Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, Calif., USA, through an amplifier 322, such as a 50-dB power amplifier 3100 L (ENI, Inc., Rochester, N.Y., USA). The diagnostic transducer 304 can be driven by a pulser-receiver system 342, for example a pulser-receiver 5052 PR (Panametrics, Waltham, Mass., USA), connected to a digitizer 326, e.g., digitizer CS14200 (Gage Applied Technologies, Inc., Lachine, QC, Canada). It is understood that the above-described components can be modified or replaced with other components, as is known in the art, for producing the ultrasound beams described herein. Computer 328 typically includes a processor, such as a CPU (not shown), and can be any appropriate personal computer or distributed computer system including a server and a client. For example, a computer useful for this system is a Dell Precision 380 personal computer. It is understood that any personal computer, laptop, or other processor that can load software and communicate with the various components discussed herein can be used. A memory unit (not shown), such as a disk drive, flash memory, volatile memory, etc., can be used to store software for positioning and operating the transducer assembly, image data, a user interface software, and any other software which can be loaded onto the CPU.

In another exemplary embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3( b), system 300′ can include a transducer assembly having an array of a plurality of single-element FUS transducers 304 and 305 which can be targeted to different regions of the tissue of the subject. Each FUS transducer 304, 305 in the array can be fired individually, thereby permitting opening of the BBB in several locations without repositioning the transducer assembly.

Prior to sonication and in order to verify undistorted propagation through the skull, a scan, such as a 3-D raster-scan (lateral step size: 0.2 mm; axial step size: 1.0 mm), of the beam of the FUS transducer 302, can optionally be performed in a large water tank containing degassed water with a needle hydrophone having a needle diameter on the order of about 0.2 mm (Precision Acoustics Ltd., Dorchester, Dorset, UK). In this manner the pressure amplitudes and three-dimensional beam dimensions of the FUS transducer 302 can be measured. The pressure amplitudes can be measured by calculating the peak-rarefactional pressure values and accounting for an pressure attenuation due to transcranial propagation, e.g., an 18% pressure attenuation. The dimensions of the beam provided by the FUS transmitter 302 can have a lateral and axial full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) intensity of approximately 1.32 and 13.0 mm, respectively, and in some embodiments can be approximately equal to the dimensions of the beam after propagation through the skull.

System 300 also includes a liquid container 334 containing an appropriate liquid 336, e.g., degassed and distilled water, which is sealed at the bottom with a membrane 338, which can be a polyurethane membrane that is acoustically and transparent, e.g., plastic wrap. The system 300 can also include an optical imaging device 340, such as a digital camera, for imaging the skull of the subject 332 and a MRI device 350 for imaging the brain of the subject 332.

System 300 also includes a platform 330 for the subject. In one exemplary embodiment, the platform 330 for the subject can be a polyurethane bed for a smaller subject 332, such as a mouse. In this configuration, the membrane 338 can be placed over the subject 332. In other embodiments, the platform 330 can be a hospital bed or surgical table, in which a larger subject 332 (such as a human subject) can be laid prone or supine and the transducer assembly positioned on top of the region of the skull targeted.

Additional components of the system 300 include a targeting system 400, coupled to the FUS transducer 302, for locating the focus of the FUS transducer 302 in the brain of the subject 332. The targeting system 400 can be coupled by any known method that permits the targeting system 400 to aid in properly targeting the FUS transducer 302 to the region of interest for opening of the target tissue, e.g., acoustic and/or optical coupling. FIGS. 4( a)-(d) illustrate a targeting system 400 for use with an embodiment where the subject 332 is a mouse. FIG. 4( a) illustrates mouse skull 401, where the skull's sutures can be seen through the skin and used as anatomic landmarks for targeting purposes. As illustrated in FIG. 4( a), the landmarks of mouse skull 401 include the sagittal suture 402, the frontal bone 404, the interparietal bone 406, the left parietal bone 408, and the right parietal bone 410.

FIG. 4( b) illustrates the placement of targeting system 400 on skull 401 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment. The targeting system 400 can include a plurality of members 420, 422, 424, such as thin metal bars, e.g., 0.3 mm thin metal bars, fabricated from an acoustically reflective material, e.g., paper clips. The metal bars 420, 422, 424 can be placed on several landmarks of the skull of the subject to create a layout, or grid. As illustrated in FIG. 4( b), a grid consisting of three equally spaced 0.3-mm thin F2 metal bars 420, 422, 424 were placed in the water bath 334 on top of the skull 401 and in alignment with these landmarks, e.g., bone sutures. The first bar 420 was aligned parallel and along the sagittal suture 402, and the second bar 424 was attached perpendicularly to the first bar and in alignment with the suture between the parietal 408 and interparietal bone 406. The third bar 422 was placed 4 mm away from and parallel to the second bar 424.

FIG. 4( c) illustrates the location of a brain structure 440 to be targeted, here the hippocampus, relative to the landmarks noted above. The location of the hippocampi are assumed relative to the sutures based on the mouse brain and known skull anatomy. In this exemplary embodiment, using the grid positioning system 400, the location of one of the hippocampi (indicated by circle 440) was reproducibly targeted when assumed to be at mid-distance (arrow 442) between the parallel bars 422, 424 and 2 mm away from the center bar 420 (arrow 444). To locate the desired brain structure 440 an image, such as a lateral 2-D raster scan, of the grid configuration can be made using the diagnostic transducer 304. The focus of the FUS transducer 302 can then be positioned to precisely target the desired brain structure 440. In another exemplary embodiment, the targeting system can include other imaging devices, such as a digital camera 340. For example, a digital camera 340 can be used to photograph the head of the subject 332. The relevant landmarks can be identified in the photograph, and the focus of the FUS transducer 302 targeted to a location relative to the landmarks. In addition, other MRI targeting equipment, as is known in the art, can be used for targeting the desired brain structure 440 or other targeted tissue structure.

FIG. 4( d) illustrates the actual location of the hippocampus 446 as indicated in the histology slice. FIG. 4( e) illustrates a lateral 2-D raster-scan 490 of the grid 400 using the diagnostic transducer 304. The location of the hippocampus can be identified relative to this grid. The focus of the FUS transducer 302 was placed 3 mm beneath the top of the skull by measuring distance with the diagnostic transducer 304. Using the grid positioning system 400 and depth calculations, precise, accurate and reproducible targeting of the hippocampus or other brain structures can be performed. In one exemplary embodiment, the grid positioning system 400 allowed for sonication of the same location with good accuracy across different mice. This allowed for not only good reproducibility across different mice, but also a good comparison of BBB opening effects in different regions 440 within the sonicated area.

An exemplary method 100 for opening the BBB will be described in connection with the above-referenced figures. The subject 332 is positioned on a platform 330. Subject 332 can be positioned in a prone position, and can be anesthetized for the sonication procedure. The degassed and distilled water bath 334 is suspended over the subject's 332 head. Ultrasound gel can be used to reduce any remaining impedance mismatches between the thin plastic layer 338 and the subject's 332 skin. The transducer assembly can be placed in the water bath 334 with its beam axis perpendicular to the surface of the skull 401.

The focus of the transducer is positioned inside the subject's 332 brain. The focus can be targeted 110 to a region of the brain 440, such as the desired brain tissue, e.g., the hippocampus 446, or to the vasculature of the brain, e.g., arteries, ventricles, arterioles, and capillaries of the brain, or to other target tissue regions at different locations in the subject 332. The targeted region 440 of the brain can be located 110 utilizing the targeting system as discussed above.

Example 1

FIG. 5 illustrates a system 300 used in an experiment, approved by the Columbia University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, on seventy-nine wild-type mice (strain: C57BL/6, mass: 28.0±4.5 g, sex: male; Harlan, Indianapolis, Ind., USA) which were studied in accordance with the techniques described herein. As illustrated in FIG. 7, the system 300 can include a FUS transducer 302, a pulse-echo diagnostic transducer 304, a cone 306, a latex membrane 308, a 3-D positioning system 310 all operatively connected to a function generator 320, a power amplifier 322, a pulse-receiver system 324, a digitizer 326 and a computer 327. The cone 306 can be inserted into a water container 334 which is sealed at the bottom by a polyurethane membrane 338 and placed on the shaved skull 502 of the mouse subject 332. The mouse subject 332 is held in place using a stereotaxic apparatus 504.

In the experiment, the mice were anesthetized using 1.25-2.50% isoflurane (SurgiVet, Smiths Medical PM, Inc., Wisconsin, USA) throughout both the BBB opening and transcardial perfusion procedures. After being anesthetized, each mouse 332 was placed prone with its head immobilized by the stereotaxic apparatus 504 (David Kopf Instruments, Tujunga, Calif., USA). The hair on the skull was removed using an electric trimmer and a depiatory cream. A degassed water-filled container 334 sealed at the bottom with thin, acoustically and optically transparent, Saran™ Wrap 338 (Saran™; SC Johnson, Racine, Wis., USA) was placed on top of the mouse head 602 while ultrasound coupling gel was used to eliminate any remaining impedance mismatch between the two surfaces. The FUS transducer 302 was then submerged in the water of the container 334 with its beam axis perpendicular to the surface of the skull 332.

The focus of the transducer was positioned inside the mouse brain using a grid-positioning method that utilized the pulse-echo diagnostic transducer 304, as discussed above. The grid was constructed from three 0.30 mm thin metal bars (i.e., paper clips) with two of the bars parallel to one another and separated by 4.00 mm. At the center of the parallel bars, and perpendicular to the two, was soldered the third bar. The grid was placed in the water bath 334, on top of the skull, and in alignment with sutures visible through the skin. The center bar was aligned along the sagittal suture and one of the parallel bars with the lambdoid suture. A lateral two-dimensional raster-scan of the grid using the diagnostic transducer was made and the transducer's beam axis was positioned 2.25 and 2.00 mm away from the sagittal and lambdoid suture, respectively. Finally, the focal point was placed 3.00 mm beneath the top of the skull so that the acoustic wave propagated through the left parietal bone and overlapped with the left hippocampus and a small portion of the lateral region of the thalamus. The right hippocampus was not targeted and was used as the control. The grid positioning method was sufficiently precise to have the FUS beam consistently overlap the hippocampus of the murine brain.

The tissue opening procedure 100 involved injection 140, 150 a 25 μl bolus of Definity® microbubbles (1-10 μm) and a dextran contrast agent (Texas-Red® fluorescent dye with a molecular weight of 3 kDa) into the tail vein 1 minute after the start of sonication 170, with the injection taking place over a 30 second period. Sonication was performed for 11 minutes total using pulsed FUS at a set pressure of 0.51 MPa peak-rarefactional at a single location (e.g., the hippocampus). After the 11 minutes of sonication 170, the dextran was allowed to circulate and accumulate in the mouse brain for 10 minutes, after which a transcardial perfusion with phosphate buffer saline (138 mM sodium chloride, 10 mM phosphate, pH 7.4) and 60 ml of 4% paraformaldehyde was performed. The brain was extracted from the skull and then post-fixed in the paraformaldehyde overnight. Following the aforementioned procedures, the brain was prepared for frozen sections. The frozen sectioning protocol provided an efficient means of analyzing fluorescence in order to determine the threshold for BBB opening. In preparation of frozen sectioning, the brain was cryoprotected by soaking it in 30% sucrose overnight. The brain was then embedded in a cutting temperature compound (Sakura Tissue-Tek O.C.T. Compound; Torrance, Calif., USA), frozen in a square mold, and then sectioned using a cryostat into nine sections of 100 μm slices in the horizontal orientation.

Bright field and fluorescent images of the frozen sections were acquired using an inverted light and fluorescence microscope (IX-81; Olympus, Melville, N.Y., USA) at 4× magnification and with a motorized stage-scanner. Images of the paraffin sections were acquired using an upright light and fluorescence microscope (BX61; Olympus, Melville, N.Y., USA) at 4× and 10× magnification. The Texas Red-tagged dextrans were excited at 568±24 nm while emissions were filtered for 610±40 nm.

As noted above, the nine horizontal sections were chosen at defined cross-sections of the hippocampus. FIG. 6( a) illustrates a horizontal section at 10× magnification, with the left and right ROIs shown in the left and right boxes. Figure 6(b) shows the left ROI, which was subjected to sonication procedures, as detailed above, and FIG. 6( c) shows the right ROI, which was the control. In order to process the image, the regions of interest (ROIs) for each of the nine sections were outlined using Adobe® Photoshop® CS2 (San Jose, Calif., USA), as illustrated FIGS. 6( b)-(c). The outlines were then loaded into MATLAB® (Natick, Mass., USA) and used to isolate the hippocampus in the fluorescent images. The images were normalized by dividing both the left and right images by the spatially averaged right (control) image of the hippocampus, thus calculating F_(L-HIP). The threshold for an image was were the pixel value was greater than 2 standard deviations of F_(L-HIP); images exceeding the threshold were excluded from the calculations. The normalized optical density (NOD) was then calculated for each section, using the equation NOD=F_(L-ROI)−F_(R-ROI), where F_(L-ROI) is the sum of the pixel values in left ROI of the brain and R_(L-ROI) is the sum of the pixel values in the right ROI of the brain. The NOD for the brain was calculated by averaging the NOD of across all nine sections. The resulting averaged NOD was then used to determine whether, to what extent, the BBB had opened.

FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the microbubble concentration in an exemplary embodiment where the FUS pressure was 0.46 MPa, the microbubbles used where Definity® bubbles, the PRF was 10 Hz and the PL was 20 ms. The asterisks (*) indicates a significant difference in NOD from the control. As can be seen in FIG. 7, there was a significant NOD increase for all concentrations test and further there was not a significant difference between the tested concentrations, indicating that with Definity microbubbles a concentration of 0.01 μl/g of body mass is both sufficient to open the BBB in mice and also reliable for doing the same.

FIG. 8( a) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the PRF in an exemplary embodiment where the FUS pressure was 0.46 MPa, the microbubbles used were Definity® bubbles, the microbubble concentration was set at 0.05 μl/g of body mass, and the PL was 20 ms. The asterisks (*) indicates a significant difference in NOD from the control. As illustrated in FIG. 8( a), at least one pulse is needed to open the BBB in a mouse brain prepared in accordance with the procedures set forth above. Further, the lowest PRF that was observed to open the BBB was 1 Hz, while the lowest PRF that was observed to reliably open the BBB was 5 Hz. FIG. 8( b) further illustrates these findings, showing the PRF as a function of the probability of BBB opening. As illustrated in FIG. 8( b), at 5 Hz and above there is a 100% probability of the BBB opening in the mice subjects prepared in accordance with the exemplary procedures set forth above. FIG. 8( a) also illustrates that no additional benefits are gained from using a PRF greater than 5 Hz.

FIG. 9( a) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the PL in an exemplary embodiment where the FUS pressure was 0.46 MPa, the microbubbles used were Definity® bubbles, the microbubble concentration was set at 0.05 μl/g of body mass, and the PRF was 10 Hz. The asterisks (*) indicates a significant difference in NOD from the control. As illustrated in FIG. 9( a), lowest PL which resulted in BBB opening was 0.033 ms, while 0.2 ms was the lowest PL which produced reliable BBB opening in mice prepared in accordance with the above-detailed exemplary procedures. The results illustrated in FIG. 9( a) demonstrate that, contrary to prior understanding, pulse lengths shorter than 10 ms can reliably open the BBB for FUS applications utilizing pressures less than 0.5 MPa. FIG. 9( a) also illustrates that no additional benefits are gained from using a PL greater than 10 ms. FIG. 9( b) and 9(c) illustrate the PL as a function of the probability of BBB opening, with FIG. 9( b) showing the data across all PLs tested in the exemplary experiment discussed herein and FIG. 9( c) illustrating the shortest PLs tested. As illustrated in FIG. 9( c), a PL of as short as 0.1 ms has been shown to reliably open the BBB of mice prepared in accordance with the exemplary procedures described herein, which is contrary to prior understanding of the necessary PL for FUS applications employing pressures less than 0.5 MPa.

FIGS. 10( a)-(h) are images of murine brains prepared in accordance with the above-detailed exemplary procedures and illustrate the results of varying the PL from 0.033 ms (50 cycles) to 30 ms (45600 cycles). FIGS. 10( a) and 10(b) illustrate the left sonicated ROI and right control ROI, respectively, at a PL of 0.033 ms (50 cycles). FIGS. 10( c) and 10(d) illustrate the left sonicated ROI and right control ROI, respectively, at a PL of 0.1 ms (152 cycles). FIGS. 10( e) and 10(f) illustrate the left sonicated ROI and right control ROI, respectively, ata PL of 20 ms (30400 cycles). FIGS. 10( g) and 10(h) illustrate the left sonicated ROI and right control ROI, respectively, at a PL of 30 ms (45600 cycles).

FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary pulse and burst sequence, where each burst is composed set of pulses operating at a certain pulse rate frequency (PRF). For example and as illustrated in FIG. 11, one pulse can have a PL of 2.5 μs (approximately 3.5 cycles) at a pressure of 0.6 MPa. As illustrated, the pulses can be repeated at a PRF of, for example, 100 kHz. The pulsing can be continued for a period of time, e.g., 10 ms, which comprises a single burst of a certain length (BL). Finally, the bursts can be repeated at a certain rate, for example 50 Hz, which is the BRF.

FIGS. 12( a)-(c) illustrate the NOD as a function of the BRF for three different PRFs, for an exemplary experiment involving mice preformed in accordance with the above-detailed procedures. FIG. 12( a) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the BRF, in an exemplary embodiment where the FUS pressure was 0.46 MPa, the microbubbles used were Definity® bubbles, the microbubble concentration was set at 0.05 μl/g of body mass, the sonication duration was 11 minutes, the BL was 1000 pulses, and the PRF was set at 100 kHz. FIG. 12( b) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the BRF, in an exemplary embodiment having the same parameters as noted for FIG. 12( a), except at a PRF of 25 kHz. FIG. 12( b) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the BRF, in an exemplary embodiment having the same parameters as noted for FIG. 12( a), except at a PRF of 6.25 kHz.

FIG. 12( d) is a graph illustrating the effects of varying the BL, in an exemplary embodiment where the FUS pressure was 0.46 MPa, the microbubbles used were Definity® bubbles, the microbubble concentration was set at 0.05 μl/g of body mass, the sonication duration was 11 minutes, the BRF was 5 Hz, and the PRF was 100 kHz.

FIGS. 13( a)-(i) illustrate certain aspects of a mouse brain, prepared in accordance with the exemplary methods described herein. Fluorescence images depicting delivery of dextrans at distinct molecular weights, spatially homogenous delivery, and outlines of neuronal axons are shown. The left ROI of the brain was sonicated in the presence of microbubbles and fluorescently-tagged (FIGS. 13( a) and 13(d)-(h)) 3-, (FIG. 13( b)) 10-, and (FIG. 13( c)) 70-kDa dextrans. Diffuse fluorescence regions can be observed for all dextrans, whereas spots of high fluorescence are only observed with the 70-kDa dextran. Pulsing in bursts using a 3.5-cycle pulse length allowed for a homogeneous and diffuse spatial distribution of 3-kDa dextran to the target ROI, shown in FIGS. 13( d)-(f). FIG. 13( f) is a zoomed image of the white square in FIG. 13( e), which is subsequently a zoomed image of the white square in FIG. 13( d). As shown in the graph of FIG. 13( g), subregions within the hippocampus displayed difference in NOD. FIGS. 13( h) and 13(i) show that, in some brains, the morphology of neurons and vessels can be observed to have increased fluorescence over high levels of diffuse fluorescence. FIG. 13( i) is a zoomed image of FIG. 13( h) using confocal microscopy. As shown, axons (white arrows) and a capillary (black arrow) are observed. The bars in FIGS. 13( a) and 13(i) depict 1 mm and 50 μm, respectively. An asterisk indicates an increase in left hemispheric NOD per pixel (P<0.05) relative to the stratum pyramidale. The bar in FIG. 13( a) depicts 1 mm, sr, stratum radiatum; sl: stratum lucidum; sp: stratum pyramidale; so: stratum orien.

Table 1 below illustrates the results of another experiment preformed on ninety-nine male mice (strain: C57B16; 24.71±1.77 g) in accordance with the exemplary methods described herein and the procedures of the Columbia University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Table I illustrates eighteen different experimental conditions, varying the microbubble concentration (μl/g of body mass), the PRF (Hz), and the PL (ms). The results are shown in terms of the NOD (mean±s.d.×10⁹) and the number of mice with delivered dextran. The first entry corresponds to a sham mouse, where no ultrasound was applied; in the second entry the microbubbles and dextran were administered 1 minute before a 30-second sonication; and in the final entry the microbubbles were injected over a 180 second period. In the remaining entries the mice were intravenously injected with a solution of dextran and microbubble 1 minute after the start of an 11-minute sonication. All sonications were performed with an 1.525 MHz acoustic beam and at a peak-rarefactional pressure of 0.46 MPa.

TABLE 1 Microbubble Pulse concentration repetition Pulse NOD × 1e9 Number of mice (μL/g of body frequency length (mean ± std. with delivered mass) (Hz) (ms) dev.) dextran 0.05^(a) — — 0.01 ± 0.23 0/5 0.05^(b) 10 20 4.91 ± 0.94 5/5 0.05 10 20 4.45 ± 2.08 5/5 0.01 10 20 2.89 ± 1.99 5/5 0.25 10 20 5.34 ± 2.12 5/5 0.05 0.1 20 −0.17 ± 0.17  0/5 0.05 1 20 3.77 ± 4.52 3/5 0.05 5 20 4.21 ± 2.05 5/5 0.05 25 20 4.58 ± 1.40 5/5 0.05 10 0.03 0.78 ± 1.41 2/5 0.05 10 0.1 1.20 ± 1.05 5/6 0.05 10 0.2 0.98 ± 0.67 5/5 0.05 10 1 4.07 ± 3.71 5/5 0.05 10 2 1.84 ± 1.44 4/5 0.05 10 10 4.76 ± 2.03 5/5 0.05 10 30 5.77 ± 1.73 5/5 0.05 5 0.2 2.02 ± 1.38 5/5 0.05^(c) 5 0.2 1.58 ± 1.37 5/5 ^(a)Sham mouse. No ultrasound was applied. ^(b)Microbubble and dextran were administered 1 minute before a 30-second sonication. ^(c)Microbubbles were injected over 180 seconds.

Table 2 below illustrates the results of another experiment preformed on ninety-five C57B16 male mice in accordance with the exemplary methods described herein and the procedures of the Columbia University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Table 2 illustrates eighteen different experimental conditions, varying the PRF (kHz), BRF (Hz), the BL (# of pulses) and the peak-rarefactional pressure. The results are shown in terms of the NOD (mean±s.d.×10⁹) and the number of mice with an incidence of NOD increase, calculated as detailed above. Those entries marked with an asterisk (*) correspond to sham mice, where no ultrasound was applied and those entries marked with a double asterisk (**) correspond to parameters where pulses were emitted continuously and without bursts. For all entries the sonication was for 11 minutes at a center frequency of 1.5 MHz, in the presence of systemically administered Definity® microbubbles (0.05 μl/g of body mass) and fluorescently-tagged dextran (molecular weight: 3 kDa, fluorescent tag: Texas Red®) and the PL was 3.5 cycles (2.3 μs).

TABLE 2 Pulse Burst Burst repetition repetition length Peak- NOD × 1e9 Incidence frequency frequency (# of rarefactional (mean ± std. of NOD (kHz) (Hz) pulses) pressure dev.) increase *— *— *— 0 0.02 ± 0.19 0/3 100 **— **— 0.51 0.21 ± 0.32 1/3 100 10 1000 0.51 2.01 ± 1.44 3/3 100 5 1000 0.51 6.14 ± 1.45 3/3 100 2 1000 0.51 3.08 ± 2.76 3/3 100 1 1000 0.51 1.45 ± 0.73 3/3 100 0.1 1000 0.51 0.99 ± 0.85 2/3 25 **— **— 0.51 0.30 ± 0.20 1/3 25 10 1000 0.51 1.31 ± 1.35 2/3 25 5 1000 0.51 1.48 ± 0.77 3/3 25 2 1000 0.51 3.34 ± 1.35 3/3 25 1 1000 0.51 1.92 ± 0.10 3/3 25 0.1 1000 0.51 0.35 ± 0.10 2/3 6.25 **— **— 0.51 −0.11 ± 0.35  1/3 6.25 5 1000 0.51 0.56 ± 0.95 2/3 6.25 2 1000 0.51 −0.16 ± 0.67  1/3 6.25 1 1000 0.51 0.78 ± 0.85 2/3 6.25 0.1 1000 0.51 0.68 ± 0.47 2/3 100 5 1000 0.37 0.60 ± 0.48 2/3 100 5 1000 0.25 0.10 ± 0.16 1/3 100 5 1000 0.13 0.10 ± 0.21 1/3 100 5 500 0.51 3.30 ± 0.58 3/3 100 5 100 0.51 3.60 ± 0.95 3/3 100 5 50 0.51 2.20 ± 0.54 3/3 100 5 10 0.51 2.14 ± 1.33 3/3 100 5 5 0.51 0.13 ± 0.17 1/3 100 5 1 0.51 0.01 ± 0.11 0/3 *Sham mice where no ultrasound was applied. **Parameters where pulses were emitted continuously and without bursts.

As illustrated in Table 2, emission of a continuous train of pulses at 0.51 MPa and a PRF of 6.25, 25, and 100 kHz produced no significant increase in NOD, which is a measure of the relative increase in fluorescence in the left (target) ROI relative to the right (control) ROI. Under each condition, only 1 out of 3 mice had an increase in NOD, and in these instances, the fluorescence was faint and distributed along or near large vessels. Select intervals were evaluated by grouping 1000 pulses into bursts and emitting them at a BRF of 0.1, 1, 2, 5, or 10 Hz, which corresponded to a burst repetition period (BRP) of 10, 1, 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 s, respectively. At a 100-kHz PRF, significant increases in NOD were observed at 1 and 5 Hz, while no increase was observed at 0.1, 2, and 10 Hz. At a 25-kHz PRF, significant increases were observed at 1, 2, and 5 Hz, while no increase was observed at 0.1 and 10 Hz. At a 6.25-kHz PRF no significant increase was observed at any of the BRFs evaluated although some mice had observable increases in fluorescence. In general and as illustrated in Table 2, the NOD increased with the interval between bursts and then decreased beyond a particular duration. Also, both the level and incidence of NOD decreased with the PRF. The maximum average NOD increase was observed with a 100-kHz PRF and a 5-Hz BRF.

Table 2 further illustrates the dependence of acoustic peak-rarefactional pressure on BBB disruption was evaluated in a sham (0 MPa) and pressures of 0.13, 0.25, 0.37, and 0.51 MPa. A significant increase in NOD was only observed at 0.51 MPa. Although 0.37 MPa had no significant increase in NOD, 2 out of 3 mice had detectable levels of fluorescence. Therefore, the pressure threshold for BBB disruption for a 3.5-cycle pulse was between 0.25 and 0.51 MPa. The effect of BL was evaluated from 1 to 1000 pulses. A single pulse was insufficient in disrupting the BBB. The lowest pressure show feasible in disrupting the BBB was at 5 pulses and was observed in 1 out of 3 mice. A significant increase in NOD was observed from 50 pulses and higher. In general, increasing the number of pulses increased the likelihood and magnitude of NOD increase.

In an experiment using a 100-kHz PRF, a 5-Hz BRF, a 0.51 MPa pressure and a 1000 pulse BL, the relevance of the pulse-sequence to pharmacologically-sized agents was evaluated with dextrans at molecular weights of 3-, 10-, and 70-kDa. Significant increases in NOD were observed using 3 and 70 kDa dextrans. The 10-kDa dextran was successfully delivered in all 3 mice, but the increase was not as significant (P=0.06). The 3-kDa agent was distributed most homogeneously and across a larger area than the other two molecular weights. The distribution of 10-kDa was diffuse as well, but did not extend spatially as far as the 3-kDa dextran. The 70-kDa dextran had heterogeneous spots of high levels of fluorescence on top of diffusely distributed fluorescence. In certain instances, when high concentrations of 3-kDa dextran were diffusely delivered to the target ROI, the morphology of neurons and/or glial cells can be seen. For example and as illustrated in FIGS. 13( h) and 13(i), at a PRF of 100 kHz, a BL of 1000 pulses, and a BRF of 2 Hz, a neuronal axon with an approximately 1 μm diameter can be observed extending from its cellular body and attached to a capillary, which had a diameter for approximately 4.5 μm.

Example 2

In another exemplary experiment, the efficacy of the FUS method described herein is shown by accomplishing two objectives after BBB opening: 1) diffusion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) across the BBB and containment of BDNF within the targeted region, i.e., the hippocampus and 2) associated activation of the BDNF receptor and its downstream signaling molecules in neurons, illustrating bioactivity of the functional BDNF upon delivery.

To visualize the passage of BDNF across the BBB, the fluorescent dye Alexa Fluor 594 was conjugated to BDNF prior to the experiments. The fluorescent tag is expected to not modify the transport properties of BDNF given its relatively small molecular weight (˜0.3 kDa) compared to the BDNF's (27 kDa). Following successive application of FUS sonication (for example as shown in FIGS. 4( c) and 5), microbubble injection, and intravenous injection of BDNF, the mice (n=3) were sacrificed 20-30 min post-sonication for histological analysis 1) to allow for the BDNF to accumulate in the BBB-opened region and facilitate detection of the compound (higher fluorescent intensity) at the sonicated areas; 2) to allow the compound to circulate through the microvasculature before being cleared by the venous system, since circulating BDNF has a half-life of less than 10 min; and 3) to allow for the downstream signaling cascade to be activated. The activation of the BDNF receptor, TrkB, can occur within seconds of BDNF delivery.

Animals

A total of seven C571316 male mice were used for this study (17.6-23.0 g, Harlan Laboratories). The animals were anesthetized with a mixture of oxygen (0.8 L/min at 1.0 Bar, 21° C.) and 1.5-2.0% vaporized isoflurane (Aerrane, Baxter Healthcare) using an anesthesia vaporizer (SurgiVet, Smiths Group). The mouse's vital signs were monitored continuously and isoflurane was adjusted throughout the experiment as needed. The Columbia University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) gave approval for the mouse studies.

The total number of mice used in the BDNF study was seven (n=7) as follows: three mice were injected with BDNF, sonicated and sacrificed after 20-30 min for both IHC & fluorescence analysis, one mouse was injected with BDNF, sonicated and sacrificed but died after 3 min (IHC and fluorescence analysis were also performed but discounted in the statistical analysis) and three controls were sonicated and sacrificed after 20-30 min (No BDNF) for IHC analysis. Three types of “controls” were used to show the effect of sonication on the BDNF permeation through the blood-brain barrier and subsequent activation of the downstream signaling cascade as follows:

a) to demonstrate the difference between the left (sonicated) hippocampus and the right (non-sonicated) hippocampus in four mice (three mice sacrificed after 20-30 min, one died after 3 min) following BDNF injection and sonication;

b) to demonstrate no difference between the left (sonicated) hippocampus and the right (non-sonicated) hippocampus in three control mice following only sonication (no BDNF) so as to rule out the effect of sonication alone on signaling cascade activation; and

c) to obtain negative controls for the IHC analysis in all studied mice, where no primary antibody was added to the sections.

The statistical analysis was based on the three BDNF-injected mice that were sacrificed after 20-30 min, and did not include the 3-min mouse case. The results for the case of 3-min BDNF-injected mouse are also presented for comparison in terms of the downstream signaling activation and its time dependence in order to support previous reports on the temporal sequence of signaling cascades downstream of BDNF. The BDNF was injected into the femoral vein 10-min after sonication while the mice were still anesthetized. There was at least 3 min (1 mouse) and 20-30 min (3 mice) of circulation before PBS transcardial perfusion was started.

Neurotrophic Factors

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)

The Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) conjugated to Alexa Fluor® 594 dye was used (Invitrogen Corp, Carlsbad, Calif., USA). BDNF Human Recombinant was produced in Escherichia Coli and is a homodimer, non-glycosylated, polypeptide chain containing 2×119 amino acids with a total molecular mass of 27 kDa. According to the supplier, it was purified by proprietary chromatographic techniques and the sequence of the first five N-terminal amino acids was determined and found to be Met-His-Ser-Asp-Pro. Biological activity was determined by evaluating ED50 (50 ng/ml), calculated by the dose-dependent induction of ACHE (acetylcholine esterase) in rat basal forebrain primary septal culture. The compound (6.0 mg) was custom conjugated to Alexa Fluor® 594 dye (=1:1 molar ratio) and provided in a fine lyophilized powder. The vials were stored under −18° C. until use.

Glial-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF) and Neurturin (NTN)

A total of 12 mice received FUS followed by GDNF (40-90 mg/kg in 0.15 ml PBS, n=10), as well as NTN (20 mg/kg in 0.2 ml PBS, n=2) injections. Two mice were used for the NTN study. Both GDNF and NTN were conjugated with Alexa Fluor® 488 fluorescent dye. Four sites within a 1 mm square in the caudate were sonicated at a frequency of 1.5 MHz, with a pulse length of 15,000 cycles (n=3) and 30,000 cycles (n=8), at varying pressures. Detailed acoustic parameters were shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 FUS parameters used in the case of GDNF and NTN Compound GDNF NTN PL (cycles) 15,000 30,000 30,000 P-N pressure 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.60 Circulation time 45 180 180 60 60 6. 4 3 6 6 30

In the case of 6.5 minutes circulation time, blood was drawn after 45 seconds to confirm the circulation and fluorescence of the protein. Brain, liver, kidney, and testes were extracted and fixed for frozen section. Organs were then frozen into blocks and sectioned at 100 μm to potentially locate GDNF.

Ultrasound

A single-element spherical segment FUS transducer (center frequency: 1.525 MHz; focal depth: 90 mm) was driven by a function generator (Agilent Technologies) through a 50-dB power amplifier (ENI) to generate therapeutic ultrasound waves. A pulse-echo transducer (center frequency: 7.5 MHz; focal length 60 mm) was positioned through a center hole of the FUS transducer so that the foci of the two transducers were aligned. It was driven by a pulser-receiver system (Panametrics) connected to a digitizer (Gage Applied Technologies) and was used for imaging. A cone filled with degassed and distilled water and capped with an acoustically transparent polyurethane membrane was mounted on the transducer system (FIG. 5). The transducers were attached to a computer-controlled 3D positioning system (Velmex). The FUS transducer's pressure amplitude reported in this Example was previously measured with a needle hydrophone (needle diameter: 0.2 mm; Precision Acoustics) in degassed water while accounting for 18.1% attenuation by the mouse skull. The dimensions of the beam were measured to have a lateral and axial full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) intensity of approximately 1.32 and 13.0 mm, respectively.

Targeting Procedure

The head of each anesthetized mouse was immobilized using a stereotaxic apparatus. The fur on top of the head was removed with an electric razor and a depilatory cream. After applying ultrasound gel, a water bath with its bottom made of an acoustically and optically transparent membrane was placed on top of the head and gel. A grid positioning method to target the mouse hippocampus was then used as previously described. In brief, a metallic grid was placed in alignment with the mouse skull's sutures, which were visible through the intact scalp of the mouse after hair removal. The left hippocampus was localized by identifying the sagittal suture and then moving 2.5 mm to the left of that suture and subsequently 3 mm in depth from the top of the skull. The grid was removed immediately after targeting was completed and prior to FUS application as to prevent interference with the sonication. Four target sonication locations were identified relative to the sutures. The first target overlapped the medial portion of the hippocampus, the lateral portion of the thalamus, and the posterior cerebral artery (PCA). The transducer was then moved 1 mm anterior and 1 mm lateral for the second target and then 1 mm posterior for the third. The fourth and final target was 1 mm medial and 1 mm anterior. In the end, four different locations were targeted at the corner of a 1 mm×1 mm square.

Sonication Protocol

BDNF

Definity® microbubbles (diameter: 1.1-3.3 μm, vial concentration: 1.2×1010 bubbles/mL; Lantheus Medical Imaging) were composed of octafluoropropane gas encapsulated in a lipid shell were diluted (1:20) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and then administered into the tail vein (final administered concentration: 50 μl/kg of body mass). This dosage is exemplary, however, it is recognized that different bubble concentrations can be used in accordance with the disclosed subject matter. For example, a clinical dose, which can be about five times lower, can be used in accordance with the disclosed subject matter. One minute after injection, pulsed-wave FUS (peak-rarefactional pressure: 0.46 MPa; pulse repetition frequency: 10 Hz; pulse length: 20 ms) was applied. Each of the four target locations was sonicated twice, resulting in a total of 8 sets of 30 s sonication with a 30 s delay between each set.

GDNF and NTN

The sonication parameters are provided in Table 3. All other parameters used were the same as in the case of BDNF.

Administration, Perfusion, and Sectioning

A bolus injection of BDNF compound via the femoral vein was followed 10 minutes after sonication (40-90 mg/kg of mouse body mass in 0.2 ml PBS). Except for one animal that died 3 minutes after injection and was perfused immediately, the rest of the animals were sacrificed 20-30 minutes after the injection to allow for adequate circulation. The animals were transcardially perfused with phosphate buffered saline (4-5 min.) and 4% paraformaldehyde (7-8 min) at a flow rate of 6.8 ml/ruin. Next, the skulls were removed and immersion-fixed for 24 hours before extracting the brains. Extracted brains were fixed again in 4% paraformaldehyde for 24 hours, and transferred to 10% (30 min), 20% (60 min), and 30% (24 hr) sucrose solution for cryoprotection. Brain samples were then embedded in an Optimal Cutting Temperature (OCT) medium and were frozen using dry ice and isopentane. Frozen blocks were sectioned horizontally at 10-150 μm thickness for fluorescent imaging and at 5-10 μm thickness for immunohistochemistry. Slices covering the entire hippocampus were selected, placed on a slide, and stored in −18° C. freezer for later analysis. In each case, the right hippocampus is not sonicated and therefore serves as the control to the left hippocampus, which is sonicated.

Immunohistochemistry

Immunohistochemistry was performed only in the case of BDNF. Five primary antibodies were used: two against phosphorylated TrkB receptor (p-Y816 rabbit polyclonal [ab75173] and p-Y515, rabbit polyclonal [ab51187]) purchased from Abeam Inc. (Cambridge, Mass.), and three against phosphorylated Akt (p-S473 rabbit monoclonal [#4060]), phosphorylated MAPK (p-T202/T204 rabbit monoclonal [#4370]), and phosphorylated CREB (p-S133 rabbit monoclonal [#9198]), all purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, Mass.). Slides containing thin frozen sections (5-10 μm) were dried and placed in a citrate buffer (pH 6.0) for antigen retrieval using a microwave. Slides were allowed to cool for 20 minutes prior to a PBS rinse (3×5 min) and then incubated in 0.3% hydrogen peroxide in PBS (five min) to block endogenous peroxidase activity. Slides were washed again in PBS (3×5 min) and blocked in 10% normal goat serum with 0.1% BSA for 20 minutes. After blocking solution was removed, the primary antibodies were diluted in DAKO antibody diluent solution (1:50-1:300) and incubated for 60 minutes at room temperature. Slides were washed in PBS for five min and incubated with biotinylated secondary antibody (goat anti-rabbit 1:200; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.) for 30 minutes at room temperature. Slides were washed again in PBS (3×5 min) and VECTASTAIN® ABC reagent was added to the sections for 30 minutes (A: 1:60, B: 1:60 in PBS mixed 30 min prior to use). Slides were washed in PBS (3×5 min) and peroxidase substrate solution DAB (DAKO, Carpinteria, Calif.) was added to sections (1 drop of DAB in 1 ml buffer). Slides were immersed in dH2O as soon as color developed. Sections were counterstained with hematoxylin, cleared and dehydrated with alcohols and xylene, and covered with Permount™ mounting medium (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc Waltham, Mass., U.S.A.), and a glass coverslip.

Bright-Field and Fluorescent Microscopy

Bright-field and fluorescent images were acquired using a light and fluorescence microscope (BX61; Olympus, Melville, N.Y., USA) with a filter set at excitation and emission wavelengths of 595 nm and 615 nm, respectively.

Quantification

Bright field images were white corrected with same correction for both right (control) and left (sonicated) images. Diaminobenzidine (DAB) stain density was then extracted from the bright field images using a color deconvolution method and implemented in Matlab (Mathworks, Natick, Mass.) by the Open Microscopy Environment project (OME, www.openmicroscopy.org). H&E DAB built-in vectors were used for the deconvolution step. Where DAB is uptaken, the cellular region in question turns brown. For each image, the mean stain intensity was computed using the logarithm of the stain intensity. Image artifacts (folded tissue, holes or stain droplets) were manually segmented in each image and removed from the analysis. For each mouse and each antibody, the percentage change (PC) of the stain intensity between the left and the right sides was then computed as follows: PCI=100 [(ILeft−IRight)/IRight]

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using a two-tailed Student's t-test to determine whether the BDNF concentration is significantly increased in the sonicated (left hippocampus) region compared to the BDNF concentration in the unsonicated (right hippocampus) region. A p<0.05 was considered significant in all comparisons.

Results

FIG. 14( a) shows a fluorescent image of a 100-micron frozen brain section from a mouse that was sacrificed 20 min after sonication. The sonicated hippocampus (left) shows much higher fluorescent intensity than the un-sonicated hippocampus (right), depicting blood-brain barrier opening and the extravasation of fluorescent-tagged (Alexa Fluor 594) BDNF in the sonicated region; FIG. 14( b) shows a 5-micron frozen section from the same mouse was immunohistochemically stained using a primary antibody against phosphorylated MAPK (pMAPK). Consistent with the fluorescent image in FIG. 14( a), the intensity of DAB staining is much greater in the left sonicated hippocampus compared to the right control; the black box shows the enlarged area in FIG. 14( c), where immunoreactivity to pMAPK is shown in mossy fiber terminals (arrowhead), suprapyramidal CA3 dendrites (black star), and the axons of the Schaffer collateral system (hollow star); FIG. 14( d) shows immunohistochemical staining of a 5-micron frozen section from a mouse that was sacrificed 3 min after sonication; the same primary antibody against pMAPK was used. No difference in DAB intensity is shown between the sonicated and the control hippocampus, i.e., the 3-min case did not show significantly greater immunoreactivity to MAPK in the sonicated region in contrast to all three 20-30 min mice that did in FIGS. 14( b)-(c); FIG. 14( e) shows negative control performed at the same time and for the same mouse as in FIG. 14( a); no primary antibody (against pMAPK) was added to this 5-micron frozen section during the staining procedure. All magnifications are 40× and scale bars are 500 jun except for FIG. 14( c), which is 100× and 200 μm, respectively.

FIG. 14( a) shows the diffusion of BDNF at the sonicated region in the left hippocampus as detected by fluorescent intensity of Alexa Fluor 594 (mouse sacrificed 20 min after BDNF injection). A difference can be shown in fluorescent intensities between the sonicated hippocampus (left) and the control un-sonicated hippocampus (right). Regions of greater intensity included parts of the thalamus, the transverse hippocampal artery and its branches inside the hippocampus, the neurons in the pyramidal (CA1-CA3) layers of the hippocampus proper, and the neurons in the hilus and granular layers of the dentate gyrus. FIGS. 14( b)-(c) depict the extent of immunoreactivity to phosphorylated MAPK (activated molecule downstream of BDNF signaling; discussed below) in a DAB-stained section that was sectioned ˜300 μm dorsally from the frozen section imaged in FIG. 14( a). The DAB-stained regions closely matched the areas of BDNF diffusion, providing a multi-modality confirmation of BDNF delivery across the BBB. Similar DAB intensity was observed in the case of the mouse sacrificed 3 min after sonication (FIG. 14( d)) and the negative control for the case in FIG. 14( a), i.e., no primary antibody added (FIG. 14( e)).

To demonstrate post-delivery bioactivity of the BDNF compound, immunohistochemical techniques were utilized to detect activated downstream signaling molecules using two primary antibodies against the activated TrkB receptor (pTrkB Y816 and pTrkB Y515), and three primary antibodies against the phosphorylated MAPK (T202-T204), phosphorylated CREB (S133), and phosphorylated Akt (S473). The relative activation of these signaling molecules in sonicated vs. non-sonicated hippocampi of both BDNF-administered (N=3) and control mice (N=3) were quantified by measuring the DAB stain intensity as described herein.

FIGS. 15( a)-(d) show immunohistochemical staining of 5-micron frozen sections using a primary antibody against phosphorylated TrkB 816 (FIGS. 15( a)-(c)) and a primary antibody against phosphorylated TrkB 515 (d). Mice were sacrificed 20-30 min (FIGS. 15( a)-(b), (d)) or 3 min (FIG. 15( c)) after sonication. The difference in DAB intensity between the sonicated hippocampus (left column) and the contralateral control hippocampus (right column) is detectable in all the sections (FIGS. 15( a)-(d)). In FIGS. 15( a) and 15(b), the 20-30 min mice show increased DAB intensity in the presence of TrkB 816, although, in contrast to MAPK and CREB, a lower proportion of the sections showed notable differences between the left and right hippocampus. FIG. 15( b) shows a difference in the DAB intensity in the choroid plexus of left vs. right. hippocampus given that the former is stained in brown (examples of DAB staining are indicated by the arrows) while the latter is only stained in blue. In FIG. 15( c), the 3-min-circulation case shows increased DAB intensity in the presence of TrkB 816. The immunoreactivity to pTrkB is shown at the plasma membrane of neuronal cells in CA1 region (arrows in FIG. 15 a), ependymal cells of choroid plexus (arrowheads in FIG. 15 b), neuronal cells in hilus and granular layers of dentate gyrus (arrowheads in FIG. 15 c), and at the plasma membrane of pyramidal neurons (arrow in FIG. 15 d) and axons (stars in FIG. 15 d). Magnifications and scale bars are 400× and 50 μm (FIG. 15( b)), 200× and 100 μm (FIGS. 15( a), (c)), and 100× and 200 μm (FIG. 15( d)), respectively.

FIGS. 16( a)-(f) show immunohistochemical staining of 5-micron frozen sections using primary antibodies against phosphorylated Akt (FIGS. 16( a)-(b)) and phosphorylated CREB (FIGS. 16( c)-(e)). Mice were sacrificed 20 min (FIGS. 16( a), (c)-(d)) or 3 min (FIGS. 16( b),(e)) after sonication. The box in FIG. 16( c) shows the enlarged area in FIG. 16( d). Difference in DAB intensity between sonicated regions (left images) and the contralateral control (right images) is observable in the 20 min samples (FIGS. 16( a), (c)-(d); black stars). The greater intensity of the DAB stain in the sonicated region is especially noticeable in the thalamus in the case of pAkt (stars in FIG. 16( a)), and in the CA1 region of hippocampus (the left two stars in FIG. 16( c)), and in neuronal cells of the hilus and granular layers of dentate gyrus in the case of pCREB (arrows in FIG. 16( d), left image). Contrast these findings with the minimal or lack of DAB staining in neuronal cells of the hilus and granular layers of dentate gyrus in the control un-sonicated hippocampus (arrows and arrowheads in FIG. 16( d), right image, respectively). Magnifications and scale bars are 40× and 500 μm in FIGS. 16( c), 100× and 200 μm in FIGS. 16( a)-(b) and (e), and 200× and 100 μm in FIG. 16( d), respectively. In FIG. 16( f), immunohistology stain intensity analysis shows percentage change between the left (FUS) and the right (no FUS) sides of the mice brains. A significant difference (p<0.05, N=3; depicted by asterisks) was found between the BDNF administered animal group and the control (no BDNF) animal group for the TrkB, MAPK, and CREB antibodies. Bars represent mean standard deviation.

Across all BDNF-administered mice (sacrificed 20-30 min post-sonication), immunoreactivity to each activated signaling molecule displayed a distinct characteristic stain that was unique and easily identifiable among various brain slices. FIGS. 15( a)-(d) demonstrate the greater presence of immunoreactivity to pTrkB Y816 (FIGS. 15( a)-(c)) and pTrkB Y515 (FIG. 15( d)) in the sonicated brain regions (left column) compared to the non-sonicated contralateral regions (right column). On the sonicated side, DAB staining can be seen on neuronal cell membranes in the hilus and granular layers of the dentate gyms (FIG. 15( c)), CA1 (FIG. 15( a)) and CA3 (FIG. 15( d)) regions of the hippocampus, and on the ependymal cell membranes of the choroid plexus in the adjacent lateral ventricle (FIG. 15( b)). Such difference in DAB intensity was not apparent in all the sections, but only in some, probably due to loss of TrkB phosphorylation state after the 20-30 min delay in sacrificing the mice post-sonication and BDNF injection. On the other hand, there was strong immunoreactivity to pMAPK and pCREB in the sonicated left hippocampus of BDNF-administered mice in most of the sections analyzed 20-30 min post-injection. The temporal sequence of phosphorylation in downstream signaling molecules can be demonstrated when the results are compared to those of the mouse expiring 3 min post-sonication. In those 3-min cases, the difference in DAB intensity between the left sonicated hippocampus and the control was observed in the case of the pTrkB antibody (FIG. 15( c)), but not in pMAPK (FIG. 14( d)), pAkt (FIG. 16( b)), and pCREB (FIG. 16( e)) cases, demonstrating that the BDNF-mediated phosphorylation of the TrkB receptor is faster compared to phosphorylation of downstream molecules. As described herein, immunoreactivity to downstream molecules was more pronounced, but also unique and distinct in the sonicated left hippocampus of >20 min samples. Phosphorylated MAPK was detected in axons and dendrites of the pyramidal and granular neurons, but not in the neuronal cell bodies. pMAPK immunoreactivity was present in the mossy fibers of the CA3 hippocampal neurons (FIGS. 14( b)-(c)). The phosphorylated CREB immunoreactivity was observed in the nuclei and cytoplasm of the neuronal soma in all CA regions and layers of the sonicated hippocampus. With respect to the right (unsonicated) hippocampus (in both the control and BDNF-administered cases), lower levels of pMAPK and pCREB immunoreactivity were detectable (FIGS. 14( b)-(c) and FIGS. 16( c)-(d), right columns). In the case of pCREB, however, the CA1 region and parts of the granular layers of the dentate gyms in the right unsonicated hippocampus showed absence of immunoreactivity (FIGS. 16( c)-(d), right columns).

FIGS. 17( i)(a) and (ii)(a) show T1-weighted MR image of the entire mouse head verifying BBB opening using gadolinium enhancement and FIGS. 17( i)(b) and (ii)(b) show fluorescence image magnified in the region of interest where the highest gadolinium enhancement was detected (white rectangle) in two separate murine brains, one with fluorescently tagged (Alexa Fluor) GDNF (Invitrogen, Inc.) in FIGS. 17( i)(a)-(b) and the other with Neurturin (courtesy of Judith P. Golden, Ph.D., Washington University Medical Center and Invitrogen, Inc.) in FIGS. 17( ii)(a)-(b), were systemically administered with the target being the caudate putamen instead of the hippocampus.

According to the statistical results, more significant cascade effects were shown to be triggered in the sonicated regions compared to the contralateral (control) side in all cases, indicative of the fact that a critical BDNF concentration was reached sufficient of triggering these effects. Also, two additional neurotrophic factors that have shown promise in treating Parkinson's disease (both involved in clinical trials), were also tested, namely the glia-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) (FIGS. 17( i)(a)-(b)) and neurturin (NTN) (FIGS. 17( ii)(a)-(b)) using the same sonication parameters as in the BDNF study but targeting the caudate putamen instead of the hippocampus in two mice as that region is more relevant to Parkinson's. It can be shown that, although all these three proteins can be of similar molecular weight and overall consistency, not all neutrotrophic factors cross the blood-brain barrier after opening with FUS. Neurturin may behave similarly to BDNF permeating through the opened barrier and into the parenchyma (FIGS. 17( ii)(a)-(b)); however, GDNF does not (FIGS. 17( i)(a)-(b)). The latter finding was shown in ten mice while the former in two. There may be fewer receptors in the brain for GDNF than for BDNF, i.e., the two proteins on two different transport mechanisms. Also, the GDNF may be broken down in circulation within the first 45 s and upon imaging post-mortem no fluorescence was found in the brain (FIG. 17( ii)(b)), kidneys, liver, bladder or testes. Therefore, GDNF may be undetectable in the brain parenchyma but may also be absent from other organs, indicating potential differences in the GDNF systemic administration compared to those of BDNF and NTN.

In the case of antibodies against pTrkB (Y515 and Y816 results combined), pMAPK, and pCREB, mean percent changes in DAB stain intensity between the left and right hippocampal regions were greater in the BDNF-administered mice (25.22, 60.58, and 56.91%) compared to those in the control mice (−1.36, −9.20, and −8.67%), respectively (p<0.05; FIG. 16( f)). In the case of the pAkt antibody, the mean percent changes in the DAB stain intensity of the BDNF-administered mice and the control mice were similar, although parts of the sonicated thalamus in the BDNF-administered mice showed greater DAB stain intensity than the un-sonicated side in a few sections (FIG. 16( a)).

Thus, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) can cross the ultrasound-induced blood-brain barrier opening, and can also trigger signaling pathways in the pyramidal neurons of mice in vivo from the membrane to the nucleus. As shown with two additional neurotrophic factors, namely GDNF and NTN, these findings can depend on the pharmacokinetics and other properties of the molecular uptake of the molecule in the brain. However, as the molecule after permeation through the opened BBB triggered a molecular cascade and entered the neuronal nucleus, focused ultrasound in conjunction with microbubbles can generate downstream effects at the cellular and molecular level and thus increase the drug's efficacy and potency in controlling or reversing disease.

Example 3

In another exemplary experiment, the dependence of both the spatial extent and the duration of FUS-induced BBB opening in vivo with different microbubble sizes and peak-rarefactional pressures (PRPs) is shown. Gd-DTPA-BMA retention in the brain parenchyma can be used as a signature of the area of BBB opening. Volumetric quantification of the region of BBB opening can be assessed by measuring the diffusion volume of Gd-DTPA-BMA in the sonicated region of the brain, for example the right hippocampus, detected by the longitudinal signal enhancement. In the experiment, starting with the day of sonication and continuing up to 5 days following sonication, pre and postcontrast enhancement T1-weighted high resolution MR images were consecutively acquired at each timepoint.

Materials and Setup

Ultrasound Setup

Acoustic waves used were generated by a single-element, spherical-segment FUS transducer (center frequency: 1.5 MHz, focal depth: 60 mm, radius: 30 mm; Imasonic, France), which was driven by a function generator (Agilent, Palo Alto, Calif.) through a 50-dB power amplifier (E&I, Rochester, N.Y.) (for example as shown in FIG. 5). A central-void (radius: 11.2 mm) of the therapeutic transducer held a pulse-echo ultrasound transducer (center frequency: 10 MHz, focal length: 60 mm), which was used for imaging, with their two foci aligned. The imaging transducer was driven by a pulser-receiver (Olympus, Waltham, Mass.) connected to a digitizer (Gage Applied Technologies, Lachine, QC, Canada). A cone filled with degassed and distilled water was mounted onto the transducer system and was fitted with a polyurethane membrane (Trojan; Church & Dwight Co., Princeton, N.J.). The transducers were attached to a computer-controlled 3D positioning system (Velmex, Lachine, QC, Canada). The targeting procedure has been described herein. For example, the FUS transducer was moved 3 mm laterally of the sagittal suture and 2 mm anterior of the lambdoid suture. A needle hydrophone (Precision Acoustics, Dorchester, Dorset, UK, needle diameter: 0.2 mm) was used to measure the three-dimensional pressure field in a degassed water-tank prior to the in vivo application. The FUS focal spot overlapped with the right hippocampus and the latter portion of the thalamus, since the axial and lateral full-widths at half-maximum intensities of the beam were 7.5 mm and 1 mm, respectively. The left hippocampus fissure was used as a control, and was not sonicated. Pulsed FUS was emitted for 60 s, with a burst rate of 10 Hz, 100 burst cycles, at acoustic pressures adjusted to correspond to 0.30, 0.45, and 0.60 MPa (peak-rarefractional), after accounting for 18% murine skull attenuation. These pressures were obtained experimentally in degassed water. The mice were anesthetized using 1.25-2.50% isoflurane (SurgiVet, Smiths Medical PM, Wisconsin) mixed with oxygen during FUS.

Size Isolated Microbubbles

The microbubbles used were size-isolated from a poly-dispersed microbubble distribution using differential centrifugation. The bubbles had a 1,2-disearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) and polyoxyethylene-40 stearate (PEG40S) lipid shell and perfluorobutane (PFB) core. After the centrifugation and resuspension processes were repeated several times, three desired ranges of 1-2, 4-5, and 6-8 mm in diameter were isolated. A bolus of 1 mL/g at a concentration of 8×108/mL was injected intravenously through the tail vein prior to sonication.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

BBB opening in the murine hippocampus was confirmed using a 9.4 T system (Broker Medical; Boston, Mass.). All mice were anesthetized orally using 1-2% of isoflurane mixed with oxygen and were placed inside the vertical-bore, having a fixed position in a plastic tube with a 3.0 cm diameter birdcage coil. Vital signals were monitored and respiration rate was approximately 55 breaths/min. Each MRI session included a pre and a postcontrast enhancement, T1-weighted 2D FLASH acquisition (TR/TE: 230/3.3 ms, flip angle: 70°, NEX: 18, resolution 86 mm×86 mm, slice thickness: 500 mm, 23 slices, F.O.V.: 22 mm×16.5 mm, matrix size 256×192, receiver bandwidth: 50 kHz), obtained respectively 15 min after sonication and 55 min after injection of the MRI contrast agent (Gd-DTPA-BMA). Signal enhancement in the area of the sonicated hippocampus reached a peak approximately 1 h after IP injection. Therefore, the CE-T1 images were acquired 55 min following the injection. Omniscan™ (Gd-DTPA-BMA) was used to enhance the MR contrast in the murine brain, as a tracer for the BBB opening since it can diffuse into the brain parenchyma following BBB's altered permeability in the targeted area. Gd-DTPA-BMA was administered intraperitoneally (IP) at a dose of 6 mmol/kg. An IP bolus can provide more temporally consistent and sustained MR enhancement than an IV bolus and can be logistically simpler. Preliminary work on the IP bolus dosage indicated that the 6 mmol/kg can avoid the signal decrease which can be observed when, due to excessive Gd-DTPA-BMA, the T2 relaxivity dominates the T1 relaxivity. The same MRI session was repeated daily starting from the day of the BBB opening (day 0) and lasting up to 5 days. In the five cases where signal enhancement was detected on day 5, MRI sessions were repeated on day 7.

Animal Preparation

All procedures used in this study involving animals were approved by the Columbia University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. A total of forty-two (n=42) wild-type mice, (strain C57BL/6, mass: 20-25 g, sex: male, Harlan, Indianapolis, Ind.) was used for this experiment, separated into ten groups. Each mouse in the first nine groups was sonicated with a different combination of PRP, i.e., 0.30, 0.45, or 0.60 MPa, and a microbubble diameter, i.e., 1-2, 4-5, or 6-8 mm. These mice underwent MRI for several days after FUS. A sham group had three (n=3) mice, for which the whole procedure was repeated without FUS, i.e., anesthesia, injection of microbubbles, and MRI sessions for up to 5 days.

Histology and Imaging

On day 7, all mice were euthanized and transcardially perfused with 30 mL PBS and 60 mL 4% paraformaldehyde. Brains were soaked in paraformaldehyde for 24 h. Skulls were removed, and the brains were fixed again in 4% paraformaldehyde for 6 days, followed by conventional postfixation procedures. The paraffin-embedded specimens were sectioned horizontally at a thickness of 6 mm. 24 sections were stained and examined for each brain. Sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and then examined for red blood cell extravasations into the brain parenchyma as well as cell loss.

Image Processing and Volumetric Measurements

The enhancement in CE-T1 MR images was quantified in elliptic cylindrical VOIs encompassing the hippocampal formation, at two contralateral regions, in the right (sonicated) and the left (control) hemisphere, on each brain for each day. The major diameter of the elliptic cylinders was 4.3 mm, the minor diameter 3.4 mm, and the height 4.5 mm, covering an area of approximately 14,000 voxels from a total of nine consecutive horizontal slices, on each side. Therefore, the total volume on each cylinder was 52 mm³. In order to quantify the BBB opening volume at the sonicated side, an intensity threshold was determined and the contrast-enhanced pixels in the vessels and ventricles were excluded. To address these issues, the signal intensity was averaged over a small circular region of 1 mm in diameter, centered around the nonsonicated contralateral side close to the hippocampus and used as a reference. The number of voxels in the right (sonicated) and left (control) VOI at an intensity of 2.5 standard deviations (S.D.) or above the reference were counted. The total number of these voxels in the left VOI was then subtracted from the respective total number of voxels in the right VOI, to exclude volume contrast-enhancement in the vessels and ventricles. Precontrast images were used for the detection of any hyperintense areas before Gd-DTPA-BMA injection, and were not coregistered with the postcontrast.

The measurements in the sham group were used as the baseline, denoting that the integrity of the BBB was fully restored. Following the calculation of the mean and standard deviation (S.D.) of the volumetric measurements for each group, i.e., mice sonicated at the same PRP and microbubble size, a two-tailed Student's t-test was performed, and if no statistically significant difference compared to the control baseline was observed (P>0.05), then the BBB was considered to have closed. In other words, the closing criterion was checked on each day for each group and not for each measurement individually. All groups met the closing criterion by day 5. For the five individual cases where signal enhancement was shown on day 5, MRI was repeated on day 7. Not all of these cases however belonged to the same group, and the groups they belonged to could still meet the closing criterion based on the statistical analysis.

In order to show the differences in the timeline for closing between microbubble sizes and pressures, a statistical analysis was performed on the volume of diffusion of Gd-DTPA-BMA on day 0. To evaluate the effect of the microbubble size, a two-tailed Student's t-test was performed for each PRP, i.e., between 1-2 mm and 4-5 mm, between 1-2 mm and 6-8 mm, as well as between 4-5 mm and 6-8 mm. Differences between the different groups regarding the volume of BBB opening and the time required for the opened BBB to be reinstated were examined.

Results

FIG. 18 shows horizontal consecutive CE-T1 images (500 mm thickness, dorsal on top, ventral on bottom) from day 0 to 3 for a 6-8 mm/0.30 MPa case. The BBB opening reduced radially towards the center of the FUS beam over time, until closing was detected in day 3, when no Gd-DTPA-BMA diffused from the vasculature to the brain parenchyma.

An example of the volume quantification can be shown in FIG. 18. The VOIs were manually traced to overlap with the right and left hippocampi. On both sides, voxels with an intensity 2.5 S.D. or above the reference intensity are overlaid in red. As shown in these images, when there is no diffusion of Gd-DPTA-BMA from the vasculature to the brain parenchyma, e.g., on the control side, the vessels and the ventricles can have CE-T1 intensity above the threshold. However, when the permeability of the BBB is altered on the right hippocampus as a result of the FUS, Gd-DTPA-BMA can diffuse in that region and the area of opening can be overlaid in red. The example in FIG. 18 shows the same brain in multiple 2D slices where 6-8-mm bubbles at a PRP of 0.30 MPa were used. The volume of opening was reduced radially towards the focal region over several subsequent days, until no trans-BBB diffusion was detected on day 3, signifying that the BBB was successfully reinstated.

FIG. 19 shows coronal reconstructions from horizontal CE-T1 images with one example provided in each case of PRP and microbubble size. FIGS. 20( a)-(c) show volume of diffusion of Gd-DTPA-BMA area, depicting BBB opening, for PRP of 0,30, 0.45, and 0.60 MPa and the sham group with microbubbles of 1-2 mm in FIG. 20( a), 4-5 mm in FIGS. 20( b), and 6-8 mm in FIG. 20( c) in diameter. Error bars correspond to standard deviation and (*) denotes closing. FIG. 21 shows volume of BBB opening on day 0 versus time to closing, showing that the duration of BBB opening increased monotonically with the volume of opening on day 0.

For all cases of microbubble sizes and pressures studied, the BBB was found to be reinstated by day 5, and the duration of opening depended on the microbubble diameter and PRP used. In FIG. 19, reconstructions of the horizontal planes, sliced coronally at the level of the hippocampal formation, at all pressures and microbubble sizes are shown. In FIG. 19, it can also be shown that the area of Gd-DTPA-BMA diffusion in the brain and its spatial characteristics can depend on the microbubble size and pressure used. The BBB permeability to Gd-DTPA-BMA can occur dorsally in the brain in the cases when larger microbubbles were used, i.e., not in the 1-2 mm case, where diffusion of the contrast agent Gd-DTPA-BMA was observed mainly ventrally in the brain near the vasculature. This effect can be shown further at higher PRPs, i.e., 0.60 MPa. Volumetric measurements are shown in FIGS. 20( a)-(c) for the 1-2, 4-5, and 6-8 mm microbubble cases. At 0.30 MPa with the 1-2 mm microbubbles no BBB opening was detected. Depending on the microbubble and pressure used, the BBB closing occurred within 24 h and 5 days after sonication. More specifically, with the 1-2 mm microbubbles (FIG. 20( a)), closing was found to be closed on day 1 and 2 at 0.45 and 0.60 MPa, respectively. With the 4-5 mm and 6-8 mm microbubbles, the BBB was found to be closed on day 2 at 0.30 MPa, day 3 at 0.45 MPa, and day 5 at 0.60 MPa. A proportional relationship between the volume and the duration of the BBB opening regardless of the PPR and microbubble size used to induce the opening can thus be shown (for example in FIG. 21). Linear regression can show a correlation of R2=0.72. Excluding day 0 a logarithmic fit indicated a correlation of R2=0.78.

The results of the statistical analysis on day 0 are shown in Table 4. At 0.30 MPa, opening was induced only in the 4-5 and 6-8 mm cases, without statistically significant difference (P>0.05) between these two diameter ranges (Table 4), and the BBB was restored by day 2 in both cases. At 0.45 MPa, the volume of BBB opening induced with 1-2 mm microbubbles, was statistically different (P<0.01) than that with larger microbubbles (Table 4), and occurred within 24 h, compared to 2-3 days needed in the cases of the larger microbubbles. in Table 4, it can be shown that at 0.60 MPa, there was a statistically significant difference between the 1-2-mm and 6-8-mm bubbles (P<0.05), and at least 2 days were required for the BBB to be reinstated in the 1-2 mm case, as opposed to 4-5 days required for the larger microbubbles.

FIGS. 22( a)-(d) show examples of one out of the five cases where damage was detected. FIGS. 22( a)-(b) are horizontal precontrast T1-weighted images, acquired on day 0 and 7, respectively. Hyperintensity can be shown (white arrows) on the sonicated side, more enhanced on day 7. FIGS. 22( c)-(d) are the H&E stained slices, magnified (10) at the left (control) hippocampus and at the right (sonicated) hippocampus, respectively. In FIG. 22( c) cell loss can be detected at the dentate gyrus and CA1 area (white arrows).

Correlation can also be found between all histological damage cases and hyperintensity in the precontrast T1-w images. An example is shown in FIG. 22, where hyperintensity was detected at the sonicated region in the precontrast image, and cell loss was detected on the H&E stained slices at the level of the hippocampus. Damage was observed upon histological examination only in five animals, approximately 13% of the total number of animals used, all of which were at higher PRPs.

Discussion

In this Example, the reversibility of BBB opening was investigated using Gd-DTPA-BMA that cannot cross the BBB when the BBB is reinstated or closed. Spatial (i.e., volume) and temporal (i.e., duration) characteristics of the intact or BBB's altered function were analyzed, while opening was induced using three different microbubble sizes and three different PRPs. BBB opening induced by FUS can be shown to be transient, but the duration can depend on the acoustic parameters and bubbles used. Also, the BBB opening can be dependent on the acoustic pressure used as well as the microbubble size. The features of the BBB self-repairing characteristic were analyzed under a combination of different acoustic parameters, and a range of mono-dispersed microbubbles. A proportional relationship between the BBB opening volume and the time required for closing can be shown. Therefore, both the BBB opening volume and duration was shown to be dependent on the acoustic pressure and the microbubble size used.

The spatial characteristics of the BBB opening and its reversibility was shown as follows. Firstly, as seen in the examples of FIGS. 18 and 19, the BBB function can be reinstated in a reverse direction to that of the diffusion after opening, i.e., closing starts from the outer opened regions and ends at the focal region while also being dependent on the hippocampal vasculature. It was also shown that the permeability values towards the center of the focal region were higher. The peak of the acoustic pressure distribution can lie at the center of the focal spot which can result in larger BBB openings, hence taking longer to close. Additionally or alternatively, where the vasculature is denser, there can be a higher number of opening sites, and thus longer timelines for closing to be completed.

Even though the volume of opening induced by the 6-8-mm bubbles can be greater than the volume induced by the 4-5 mm microbubbles, these two micro-bubble sizes did not differ significantly in this experiment (as shown in Table 4) and the days required for closing were also similar (FIGS. 20( b),(c)). The differences can be relatively small because both 4-5-mm and 6-8-mm bubbles can be within the diameter size range of the capillary, i.e., 4-8 mm, and therefore they can both be in contact with the capillary wall, exerting forces on it while being acoustically driven. However, the mechanical stress on the capillary walls due to the acoustically driven microbubbles for a specific pressure when induced by the 6-8-mm can be larger than when induced by the 4-5-mm bubbles, because higher PRP can reach a similar size expansion as the 6-8-mm and have a similar effect, hence the BBB opening volume can be increased.

TABLE 4 Statistical Significance of the Volume of Diffusion of Gd-DTPA 

 BMA on Day 0, Comparing Different Cases of Microbubble Diameters per PRP Day 0 1-2 (μm) 4-5 (μm) 0.30 MPa 6-8 μm — P > 0.05 0.45 MPa 6-8 μm P < 0.01 P > 0.05 4-5 μm P < 0.01 — 0.60 MPa 6-8 μm P < 0.05 P > 0.05 4-5 μm P > 0.05 —

The BBB opening volume using 1-2-mm bubbles can be lower than for the larger microbubbles, (Table 4) and the BBB can close faster. Therefore, for improved BBB recovery at high pressures, smaller microbubbles can be preferable. The relative expansion of a microbubble can be inversely proportional to its resting diameter. 1-2-mm bubbles can induce no opening at 0.30 MPa, where only stable cavitation is expected. Thus, stable oscillations of smaller microbubbles can be insufficient to induce the repeated stress against the capillary wall at 0.30 MPa, but can be adequate at 0.45 MPa, and even more so at 0.60 MPa. It can also be shown that fragmentation occurs more frequently for microbubbles with a relatively small rather than a large resting diameter at a threshold size of 2.5 mm. Below that level, fragmentation may occur and bubbles smaller than 2 mm can be fragmented prior to reaching the endothelium and not interact with the vessel wall. Therefore, it was shown that the smaller microbubbles can be incapable of inducing opening in sites away from the bigger vessels, because they can undergo fragmentation at the beginning of the FUS pulse before perfusing the microvasculature. And thus, the therapeutic efficacy of 1-2 mm bubbles in the capillaries may be decreased.

The timeline for closing can be longer than 3-24 h. This can be due to multiple factors. First, the microbubble formulation used in this Example could be different than the commercially available contrast agents, in terms of the combination of shell properties, gas core and diameter size; therefore, this microbubble formulation used here can be a parameter to induce variations. However, the size range of the commercially available microbubbles can be closer to the 1-2-mm bubbles used in this experiment, which were shown to induce BBB opening that can close within 24 h.

At lower PRPs, the BBB can close relatively faster, and the PRPs used can be below 0.50 MPa. Moreover, the FUS frequency (1.5 MHz) can affect closing time. The resonance frequency can decrease with the microbubble radius, and can also decrease with decreasing microvessel radius. Therefore, using a lower frequency for example, which can be closer to the resonance frequency of the micro-bubbles within the microvessles and capillaries, the aforementioned effects can be further enhanced. Finally, the agents used to cross the BBB for the detection of opening can have larger MWs (Magnevist®: 938Da, HRP: 40 kDa, Evans Blue: 961 Da) while it was shown that the BBB becomes less permeable at higher MWs. Since the administered Gd-DTPA-BMA can be a relatively smaller (574 Da) agent and above the size threshold to cross the BBB (400 Da), the disclosed subject matter can have an increased sensitivity regarding the detection of BBB opening, which can contribute to longer closing times.

In the five cases where cell loss was detected in the H&E stained brain sections on the sonicated region, hyperintensity was also detected on the precontrast MRI images at the corresponding regions. The signal enhancement detected in these areas in the precontrast T1-w images can be due to permanent damage, blood present in the brain or arrested Gd-DTPA-BMA in damaged vasculature, and thus BBB can not be completely restored.

The BBB remained opened over several days in some cases. It was thereafter restored and 87% of the cases showed no detectable damage, while the remaining 13% showed minimal cell loss. Thus, first, at shorter burst lengths opening can be induced with less damage, and second, the self-repairing mechanism of the BBB can restore certain types of injury induced to the brain after FUS.

BBB can be disrupted longer than the MRI system used can detect and the resolution of the images can acquire. Additionally, the first acquisition or postcontrast T1-w images can be 1 h after FUS, and within this time some cases with relatively small BBB opening can be undetected. Finally, the circulation times and persistence of all the different sizes of microbubbles can be similar for the 10-20 s interval between injection and FUS, however, differences can affect the results.

In this Example, the volume of BBB opening and the time required for the BBB to be reinstated depends on the microbubble size and the acoustic pressure. In addition, the time for closing is proportional to the volume of opening induced by FUS, and BBB can recover its functionality between 24 h and 5 days after. The BBB opening volume can decrease radially towards the center of the focal spot over time. At lower acoustic pressures, relatively smaller microbubble diameters can induce a lower volume of BBB opening, and the closing timeline can be different than that using larger microbubbles. As the PRP increases, the differences in BBB opening and closing between the different microbubble sizes can be reduced. The BBB can close relatively faster when small microbubbles are used, while for the 4-5 and 6-8 mm the same duration for closing can be shown. Finally, hyperintensity in the area of BBB opening can be detected in the precontrast MR images in the cases where damage was concluded in histology. The FUS-opened BBB self-repairing characteristics can be shown, spatially and temporally, and the systems and methods described herein can be adjusted according to the pharmacokinetic needs of administered CNS drugs.

It will be understood that the foregoing is only illustrative of the principles described herein, and that various modifications can be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the disclosed subject matter. For example, the system and methods described herein are used for opening the blood-brain barrier of a subject. It is understood that that techniques described herein are useful for opening of other tissues. Further, the techniques described have been performed on mice but it is understood the techniques are applicable to other subject, such as humans. Moreover, features of embodiments described herein can be combined and/or rearranged to create new embodiments. 

1. A method for opening a tissue to a target value using microbubbles, comprising: targeting a region of said tissue for opening; determining at least one acoustic parameter corresponding to said target value, wherein said at least one acoustic parameter is selected to control one or more acoustic cavitation events; and applying an ultrasound beam at said at least one acoustic parameter to said targeted region such that said tissue is opened with said microbubbles to said target value.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising positioning said microbubbles in proximity to said targeted region.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein positioning said microbubbles comprises performing at least one injection of said microbubbles such that said microbubbles are positioned proximate to said targeted region.
 4. The method of claim 3, further comprising determining at least one of a number of injections of said microbubbles corresponding to said target value and a duration of injection of said microbubbles corresponding to said target value.
 5. The method of claim 3, wherein said at least one injection comprises at least one of a systemic injection, a bolus injection and a slow diffusion injection.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein controlling said one or more acoustic cavitation events comprises controlling at least one of a location, number and magnitude of said one or more acoustic cavitation events.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said acoustic parameter is selected from at least one of a pulse length, a pulse repetition frequency, a burst length, and a burst repetition frequency.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein determining at least one acoustic parameter further comprises determining a frequency corresponding to said target value.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein determining at least one acoustic parameter further comprises determining a pressure range corresponding to said target value.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said pressure range corresponds to a resonance frequency of said microbubbles proximate to said targeted region.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein determining at least one acoustic parameter further comprises determining a duration corresponding to said target value.
 12. The method of claim 1, further comprising determining a concentration range of microbubbles corresponding to said target value prior to said positioning of said microbubbles.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said tissue comprises a blood-brain barrier.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein said tissue comprises at least one of a vessel and a cell.
 15. The method of claim 1, further comprising applying an ultrasound beam to move said microbubbles into vessels of said tissue.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein said microbubbles have a size range comprising 1 to 10 microns.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein said microbubbles comprise at least one of acoustically activated microbubbles and molecule carrying microbubbles.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein said molecule comprises at least one of a medicinal molecule, a contrast agent, a biomarker and a liposome.
 19. The method of claim 1, further comprising positioning at least one of a medicinal molecule and a contrast agent in proximity to said targeted region.
 20. The method of claim 1, further comprising imaging said targeted region to form an image of said opened tissue.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein imaging said targeted region comprises applying an ultrasound beam to said targeted region, utilizing a magnetic resonance imaging device to image said targeted region, or utilizing a fluorescence imaging device to image said targeted region.
 22. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said opened tissue closes, and the method further comprises imaging said targeted region to form an image of said closed tissue.
 23. The method of claim 22, further comprising reopening at least a portion of said closed tissue.
 24. A system for opening a tissue to a target value using a solution of microbubbles having size range corresponding to said target value, comprising: a targeting assembly for targeting a region of said tissue; an introducer for delivering said solution to a location proximate to said targeted region; and a transducer, coupled to said targeting assembly, for applying an ultrasound beam to said targeted region at least one acoustic parameter corresponding to said target value thereby opening said tissue with said microbubbles to said target value, wherein said at least one acoustic parameter is selected to control one or more acoustic cavitation events.
 25. The system of claim 24, wherein said targeting assembly comprises an ultrasound transducer.
 26. The system of claim 24, wherein said targeting assembly comprises one or more members for placement on an anatomical landmark of said tissue.
 27. The system of claim 24, wherein said solution of microbubbles further comprises a microbubbles concentration range corresponding to said target value.
 28. The system of claim 24, further comprising: an imaging device for capturing image data of said opened tissue of said targeted region; and a processor, operatively coupled to said imaging device, for processing said image data to form an image therefrom.
 29. A method for delivering a drug across a tissue, comprising opening a tissue to a target value using microbubbles, comprising: targeting a region of said tissue for opening; determining at least one acoustic parameter corresponding to said target value, wherein said at least one acoustic parameter is selected to control one or more acoustic cavitation events; applying an ultrasound beam at said at least one acoustic parameter to said targeted region such that said tissue is opened with said microbubbles to said target value; and injecting said drug into the tissue in proximity to said. opening.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein said tissue comprises a blood-brain barrier.
 31. A method for opening a tissue for a target duration of time using microbubbles, comprising: targeting a region of said tissue for opening; selecting microbubbles having at least one microbubble parameter corresponding to said target duration of time, wherein said at least one microbubble parameter is selected to control said target duration of time; and applying an ultrasound beam to said targeted region such that said tissue is opened with said microbubbles for said target duration of time.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein the at least one microbubble parameter comprises a microbubble size.
 33. The method of claim 32, further comprising selecting at least one acoustic parameter and applying the ultrasound beam at said at least one acoustic parameter, wherein said at least one acoustic parameter is selected to further control said target duration of time. 